Computer Memory

In computing, memory refers to a device that is used to store information for immediate use in a computer or related computer hardware device. It typically refers to semiconductor memory, specifically metal–oxide–semiconductor memory, where data is stored within MOS memory cells on a silicon integrated circuit chip.

Types of Computer Memory: Primary and Secondary

Although many types of memory in a computer exist, the most basic distinction is between primary memory, often called system memory, and secondary memory, which is more commonly called storage.

The key difference between primary and secondary memory is speed of access.

• Primary memory includes ROM and RAM, and is located close to the CPU on the computer motherboard, enabling the CPU to read data from primary memory very quickly indeed. It is used to store data that the CPU needs imminently so that it does not have to wait for it to be delivered.
• Secondary memory by contrast, is usually physically located within a separate storage device, such as a hard disk drive or solid state drive (SSD), which is connected to the computer system either directly or over a network. The cost per gigabyte of secondary memory is much lower, but the read and write speeds are significantly slower.

Primary Memory Types: RAM and ROM 

There are two key types of primary memory:

• RAM, or random access memory
• ROM, or read-only memory

Let's look in-depth at both types of memory.

RAM Computer Memory

The acronym RAM stems from the fact that data stored in random access memory can be accessed – as the name suggests – in any random order. Or, put another way, any random bit of data can be accessed just as quickly as any other bit.

The most important things to understand about RAM are that RAM memory is very fast, it can be written to as well as read, it is volatile (so all data stored in RAM memory is lost when it loses power) and, finally, it is very expensive compared to all types of secondary memory in terms of cost per gigabyte. It is because of the relative high cost of RAM compared to secondary memory types that most computer systems use both primary and secondary memory.

Data that is required for imminent processing is moved to RAM where it can be accessed and modified very quickly, so that the CPU is not kept waiting. When the data is no longer required it is shunted out to slower but cheaper secondary memory, and the RAM space that has been freed up is filled with the next chunk of data that is about to be used.

Types of RAM

• DRAM: DRAM stands for Dynamic RAM, and it is the most common type of RAM used in computers. The oldest type is known as single data rate (SDR) DRAM, but newer computers use faster dual data rate (DDR) DRAM. DDR comes in several versions including DDR2 , DDR3, and DDR4, which offer better performance and are more energy efficient than DDR. However different versions are incompatible, so it is not possible to mix DDR2 with DDR3 DRAM in a computer system. DRAM consists of a transistor and a capacitor in each cell.
• SRAM: SRAM stands for Static RAM, and it is a particular type of RAM which is faster than DRAM, but more expensive and bulker, having six transistors in each cell. For those reasons SRAM is generally only used as a data cache within a CPU itself or as RAM in very high-end server systems. A small SRAM cache of the most imminently-needed data can result in significant speed improvements in a system

The difference between DRAM and SRAM is that SRAM is faster than DRAM - perhaps two to three times faster - but more expensive and bulkier. SRAM is usually available in megabytes, while DRAM is purchased in gigabytes.

DRAM uses more energy than SRAM because it constantly needs to be refreshed to maintain data integrity, while SRAM  - though volatile – does not need constant refreshing when it is powered up.

ROM Computer Memory

ROM stands for read-only memory, and the name stems from the fact that while data can be read from this type of computer memory, data cannot normally be written to it. It is a very fast type of computer memory which is usually installed close to the CPU on the motherboard.

ROM is a type of non-volatile memory, which means that the data stored in ROM persists in the memory even when it receives no power – for example when the computer is turned off. In that sense it is similar to secondary memory, which is used for long term storage.

When a computer is turned on, the CPU can begin reading information stored in ROM without the need for drivers or other complex software to help it communicate. The ROM usually contains "bootstrap code" which is the basic set of instructions a computer needs to carry out to become aware of the operating system stored in secondary memory, and to load parts of the operating system into primary memory so that it can start up and become ready to use.

ROM is also used in simpler electronic devices to store firmware which runs as soon as the device is switched on.

Types of ROM

ROM is available in several different types, including PROM, EPROM, and EEPROM.

• PROM PROM stands for Programmable Read-Only Memory, and it is different from true ROM in that while a ROM is programmed (i.e. has data written to it) during the manufacturing process, a PROM is manufactured in an empty state and then programmed later using a PROM programmer or burner.
• EPROM EPROM stands for Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory, and as the name suggests, data stored in an EPROM can be erased and the EPROM reprogrammed. Erasing an EPROM involves removing it from the computer and exposing it to ultraviolet light before re-burning it.
• EEPROM EEPROM stands for Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory, and the distinction between EPROM and EEPROM is that the latter can be erased and written to by the computer system it is installed in. In that sense EEPROM is not strictly read-only. However in many cases the write process is slow, so it is normally only done to update program code such as firmware or BIOS code on an occasional basis

Secondary Memory Types

• Hard Disk Drives

• Solid State Drives
• Optical Drives
• Tape Drives

 

 

Output Devices

There are several output devices that are as follows:

Monitor

This is the most common computer output device. It creates a visual display by the use of which users can view processed data.  Monitors come in various sizes and resolutions.

Common Types of Monitors

• Cathode Ray Tube – this uses phosphorescent dots to generate the pixels that constitute displayed images.
• Flat Panel Screen – this makes use of liquid crystals or plasma to produce output. Light is passed through the liquid crystals in order to generate pixels.

Printer

This device generates a hard copy version of processed data, like documents and photographs. The computer transmits the image data to the printer, which then physically recreates the image, typically on paper.

Types of Printers

• Ink Jet – this kind of printer sprays tiny dots of ink onto a surface to form an image.
• Laser – this type utilises toner drums that roll through magnetized pigment, and then transfers the pigment onto a surface.
• Dot Matrix – dot matrix printers utilise a print head to set images on a surface, using an ink ribbon.

Speakers

speakers are attached to computers to facilitate the output of sound; sound cards are required in the computer for speakers to function. The different kinds of speakers range from simple, two-speaker output devices right the way up to surround-sound multi-channel units.

Headset

This is a combination of speakers and microphone.  It is mostly used by gamers, and is also a great tool for communicating with family and friends over the internet using some VOIP program or other.

Projector

 This is a display device that projects a computer-created image onto another surface: usually some sort of whiteboard or wall. The computer transmits the image data to its video card, which then sends the video image to the projector. It is most often used for presentations, or for viewing videos.

 

Input Devices

There are several input devices that are as follows:

Keyboard

one of the primary input devices used to input data and commands. It has function keys, control keys, arrow keys, keypad and the keyboard itself with the letters, numbers and commands.  Keyboards are connected to the computer through USB or Bluetooth.  A laptop keyboard is more compact than a desktop keyboard to make the laptop smaller and lighter.  Smartphones and tablets use on-screen keyboard to input messages and select commands.

Mouse

It is an input device used to control the cursor and coordinates. It can be wired or wireless.  It allows the user to do the following:

• Move the mouse cursor
• Select
• Scroll
• Open or execute a program
• Drag-and-drop
• Hover
• Perform other functions with the use of additional buttons
• A laptop uses a touchpad as the mouse.  A smartphone and tablet use a touchscreen as primary input device and the user’s finger is used as the mouse.

Microphone

It is an input device that allows users to input audio into their computers. Here are some uses of the microphone:

• Audio for video
• Computer gaming
• Online chatting
• Recording musical instruments
• Recording voice for dictation, singing and podcasts
• Voice recorder
• Voice recognition
• VoIP – Voice over Internet Protocol

Digital Camera

It is an input device that takes pictures digitally. Images are stored as data on memory cards.  It has an LCD screen that allows users to preview and review images.  Digital cameras have become popular over film cameras because of the following features:

• LCD screen – allows users to view the photos and videos immediately
• Storage – can store thousands of pictures
• Picture development – allows users to choose and pick which pictures to develop
• Size – takes up less space and can be easily carried

Scanner

It is an input device that reads an image and converts it into a digital file. A scanner is connected to a computer through USB.  There are different types of scanners:

• Flatbed scanner – uses a flat surface to scan documents
• Sheetfed scanner – like a laser printer where paper is fed into the scanner
• Handheld scanner – the scanner is dragged over the page to be scanned
• Card scanner – for scanning business card

Touch Screen

It is an input device that allows users to interact with a computer using their fingers. It is used widely in laptop monitors, smartphones, tablets, cash registers and information kiosks.  Most common functions of touchscreens are as follows:

• Tap
• Double-tap
• Touch and hold
• Drag
• Swipe
• Pinch

Barcode Reader

It is also known as barcode scanner or point of sale (POS) scanner, is an input device capable of reading barcodes.

Webcam

It is an input device connected to the computer and the internet that captures still picture or motion video.

Biometric Devices

It is an input device used to input biometric data into a computer. Here are the types of biometric devices:

• Face scanner
• Hand scanner
• Finger scanner
• Voice scanner

Stylus

 It is a pen-shaped input device used to write or draw on the screen of a graphic tablet or device. Initially it was just used for graphic tablets and PDAs, but now, it has become popular on mobile devices as a replacement for the user’s fingers.  It’s used for more accurate navigation and to keep oils from user’s fingers off the device screen.

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

The central processing unit (CPU) or processor, is the unit which performs most of the processing inside a computer. It processes all instructions received by software running on the PC and by other hardware components, and acts as a powerful calculator.

The CPU is placed into a specific square-shaped socket found on all motherboards by inserting its metallic connectors or pins found on the underside. Each socket is built with a specific pin layout to support only a specific type of processor.

The CPU is the heart and brain of a computer. It receives data input, executes instructions, and processes information. It communicates with input/output (I/O) devices, which send and receive data to and from the CPU.

The central processing unit (CPU) has two components

Control Unit

The control unit extracts instructions from memory and decodes and executes them.

The control unit acts as an intermediary that decodes the instructions sent to the processor, tells the other units such as the Arithmetic Logic Unit (below) what to do by providing control signals, and then sends back the processed data back to memory.

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

An arithmetic logic unit (ALU) is a digital circuit inside the processor that handles arithmetic and logical operations by loading data from input registers.

After the control unit provides the ALU with the instruction on the operations that must be performed, the ALU completes them by connecting multiple transistors, and then stores the results in an output register.

The control unit will then move this data to memory.

To function properly, the CPU relies on the system clock, memory, secondary storage, and data and address buses.

Smaller devices like mobile phones, calculators, held gaming systems, and tablets use smaller-sized processors known as ARM CPUs to accommodate their reduced size and space.

Components of a Computer System

Every computer system has the following three basic components:

• Input unit
• Central processing unit
• Output unit

Input Unit

These components help users enter data and commands into a computer system. Data can be in the form of numbers, words, actions, commands, etc. The main function of input devices is to direct commands and data into computers. Computers then use their CPU to process this data and produce output.

Another example of input devices is touch-screens. Users can simply touch these screens without using any other device to enter commands. From smartphones to ATM machines, these input devices are becoming very popular these days.

Central Processing Unit

After receiving data and commands from users, a computer system now has to process it according to the instructions provided. Here, it has to rely on a component called the central processing unit. The CPU further uses these three elements:

Memory Unit

Once a user enters data using input devices, the computer system stores this data in its memory unit. This data will now remain here until other components of CPU process it. The memory unit uses a set of pre-programmed instructions to further transmit this data to other parts of the CPU.

Arithmetic and Logic Unit

This part of the CPU performs arithmetic operations. It does basic mathematical calculations like addition, subtraction, division, multiplication, etc. Further, it can even perform logical functions like the comparison of data.

Control Unit

This unit is the backbone of computers. It is responsible for coordinating tasks between all components of a computer system. The control unit collects data from input units and sends it to processing units depending on its nature. Finally, it also further transmits processed data to output units for users.

Output Unit

The third and final component of a computer system is the output unit. After processing of data, it is converted into a format which humans can understand. After conversion, the output units displays this data to users. Examples of output devices include monitors, screens, printers and speakers. Thus, output units basically reproduce the data formatted by the computer for users’ benefit.

 

 

 

Types of Computer

 Computer sizes and power

Computers can be generally classified by size and power as follows, though there is considerable overlap:

• Personal computer: A small, single-user computer based on a microprocessor.

• Workstation: A powerful, single-user computer. A workstation is like a personal computer, but it has a more powerful microprocessor and, in general, a higher-quality monitor.

• Minicomputer: A multi-user computer capable of supporting up to hundreds of users simultaneously.

• Mainframe: A powerful multi-user computer capable of supporting many hundreds or thousands of users simultaneously
• Supercomputer: An extremely fast computer that can perform hundreds of millions of instructions per second.

Supercomputer and Mainframe

Supercomputer is a broad term for one of the fastest computers currently available. Supercomputers are very expensive and are employed for specialized applications that require immense amounts of mathematical calculations (number crunching). For example, weather forecasting requires a supercomputer. Other uses of supercomputers scientific simulations, (animated) graphics, fluid dynamic calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic design, and analysis of geological data (e.g. in petrochemical prospecting). Perhaps the best known supercomputer manufacturer is Cray Research.

Mainframe was a term originally referring to the cabinet containing the central processor unit or "main frame" of a room-filling Stone Age batch machine. After the emergence of smaller "minicomputer" designs in the early 1970s, the traditional big iron machines were described as "mainframe computers" and eventually just as mainframes. Nowadays a Mainframe is a very large and expensive computer capable of supporting hundreds, or even thousands, of users simultaneously. The chief difference between a supercomputer and a mainframe is that a supercomputer channels all its power into executing a few programs as fast as possible, whereas a mainframe uses its power to execute many programs concurrently. In some ways, mainframes are more powerful than supercomputers because they support more simultaneous programs. But supercomputers can execute a single program faster than a mainframe. The distinction between small mainframes and minicomputers is vague, depending really on how the manufacturer wants to market its machines.

Minicomputer

It is a midsize computer. In the past decade, the distinction between large minicomputers and small mainframes has blurred, however, as has the distinction between small minicomputers and workstations. But in general, a minicomputer is a multiprocessing system capable of supporting from up to 200 users simultaneously.

Workstation

It is a type of computer used for engineering applications (CAD/CAM), desktop publishing, software development, and other types of applications that require a moderate amount of computing power and relatively high quality graphics capabilities. Workstations generally come with a large, high-resolution graphics screen, at large amount of RAM, built-in network support, and a graphical user interface. Most workstations also have a mass storage device such as a disk drive, but a special type of workstation, called a diskless workstation, comes without a disk drive. The most common operating systems for workstations are UNIX and Windows NT. Like personal computers, most workstations are single-user computers. However, workstations are typically linked together to form a local-area network, although they can also be used as stand-alone systems.

Personal computer:

It can be defined as a small, relatively inexpensive computer designed for an individual user. In price, personal computers range anywhere from a few hundred pounds to over five thousand pounds. All are based on the microprocessor technology that enables manufacturers to put an entire CPU on one chip. Businesses use personal computers for word processing, accounting, desktop publishing, and for running spreadsheet and database management applications. At home, the most popular use for personal computers is for playing games and recently for surfing the Internet.

Personal computers first appeared in the late 1970s. One of the first and most popular personal computers was the Apple II, introduced in 1977 by Apple Computer. During the late 1970s and early 1980s, new models and competing operating systems seemed to appear daily. Then, in 1981, IBM entered the fray with its first personal computer, known as the IBM PC. The IBM PC quickly became the personal computer of choice, and most other personal computer manufacturers fell by the wayside. P.C. is short for personal computer or IBM PC. One of the few companies to survive IBM's onslaught was Apple Computer, which remains a major player in the personal computer marketplace. Other companies adjusted to IBM's dominance by building IBM clones, computers that were internally almost the same as the IBM PC, but that cost less. Because IBM clones used the same microprocessors as IBM PCs, they were capable of running the same software. Over the years, IBM has lost much of its influence in directing the evolution of PCs. Therefore after the release of the first PC by IBM the term PC increasingly came to mean IBM or IBM-compatible personal computers, to the exclusion of other types of personal computers, such as Macintoshes. In recent years, the term PC has become more and more difficult to pin down. In general, though, it applies to any personal computer based on an Intel microprocessor, or on an Intel-compatible microprocessor. For nearly every other component, including the operating system, there are several options, all of which fall under the rubric of PC

Desktop model

A computer designed to fit comfortably on top of a desk, typically with the monitor sitting on top of the computer. Desktop model computers are broad and low, whereas tower model computers are narrow and tall. Because of their shape, desktop model computers are generally limited to three internal mass storage devices. Desktop models designed to be very small are sometimes referred to as slimline models.

Notebook computer

An extremely lightweight personal computer. Notebook computers typically weigh less than 6 pounds and are small enough to fit easily in a briefcase. Aside from size, the principal difference between a notebook computer and a personal computer is the display screen. Notebook computers use a variety of techniques, known as flat-panel technologies, to produce a lightweight and non-bulky display screen. The quality of notebook display screens varies considerably. In terms of computing power, modern notebook computers are nearly equivalent to personal computers. They have the same CPUs, memory capacity, and disk drives. However, all this power in a small package is expensive. Notebook computers cost about twice as much as equivalent regular-sized computers. Notebook computers come with battery packs that enable you to run them without plugging them in. However, the batteries need to be recharged every few hours.

Laptop computer

A small, portable computer -- small enough that it can sit on your lap. Nowadays, laptop computers are more frequently called notebook computers.

Subnotebook computer

A portable computer that is slightly lighter and smaller than a full-sized notebook computer. Typically, subnotebook computers have a smaller keyboard and screen, but are otherwise equivalent to notebook computers.

Hand-held computer

A portable computer that is small enough to be held in one’s hand. Although extremely convenient to carry, handheld computers have not replaced notebook computers because of their small keyboards and screens. The most popular hand-held computers are those that are specifically designed to provide PIM (personal information manager) functions, such as a calendar and address book. Some manufacturers are trying to solve the small keyboard problem by replacing the keyboard with an electronic pen. However, these pen-based devices rely on handwriting recognition technologies, which are still in their infancy. Hand-held computers are also called PDAs, palmtops and pocket computers.

Palmtop

A small computer that literally fits in your palm. Compared to full-size computers, palmtops are severely limited, but they are practical for certain functions such as phone books and calendars. Palmtops that use a pen rather than a keyboard for input are often called hand-held computers or PDAs. Because of their small size, most palmtop computers do not include disk drives. However, many contain PCMCIA slots in which you can insert disk drives, modems, memory, and other devices. Palmtops are also called PDAs, hand-held computers and pocket computers.

 

 

Generations Of Computers

There are five generations of computer:

• FIRST GENERATION: VACUUM TUBES (1940-1956)

• SECOND GENERATION: TRANSISTORS (1956-1963)

• THIRD GENERATION: INTEGRATED CIRCUITS (1964-1971)

• FOURTH GENERATION: MICROPROCESSORS (1971-PRESENT)

• FIFTH GENERATION: ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (PRESENT AND BEYOND)

FIRST GENERATION: VACUUM TUBES (1940-1956)

The first computer systems used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and were often enormous, taking up entire rooms. These computers were very expensive to operate and in addition to using a great deal of electricity, the first computers generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions.

First generation computers relied on machine language, the lowest-level programming language understood by computers, to perform operations, and they could only solve one problem at a time. It would take operators days or even weeks to set-up a new problem. Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was displayed on printouts.

The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation computing devices. The UNIVAC was the first commercial computer delivered to a business client, the U.S. Census Bureau in 1951.

SECOND GENERATION: TRANSISTORS (1956-1963)

The world would see transistors replace vacuum tubes in the second generation of computers. The transistor was invented at Bell Labs in 1947 but did not see widespread use in computers until the late 1950s.

The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-generation predecessors. Though the transistor still generated a great deal of heat that subjected the computer to damage, it was a vast improvement over the vacuum tube. Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for output.

THIRD GENERATION: INTEGRATED CIRCUITS (1964-1971)

The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of computers. Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers.

Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers through keyboard and monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the device to run many different applications at one time with a central program that monitored the memory. Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.

FOURTH GENERATION: MICROPROCESSORS (1971-PRESENT)

The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled an entire room could now fit in the palm of the hand. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of the computer from the central processing unit and memory to input/output controls on a single chip.

In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced the Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop computers and into many areas of life as more and more everyday products began to use microprocessors.

As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth generation computers also saw the development of GUI's, the mouse and handheld devices.

FIFTH GENERATION: ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (PRESENT AND BEYOND)

Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development, though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today. The use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a reality.

Quantum computation and molecular and nanotechnology will radically change the face of computers in years to come. The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop devices that respond to natural language input and are capable of learning and self-organization.