Entering Text

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In this chapter, let us discuss how to enter text with Microsoft Word 2010. Let us see how easy it is to enter text in a Word document. We assume you know that when you start Word, it displays a new document by default as shown below −

Document area is the area where you type your text. The flashing vertical bar is called the insertion point and it represents the location where the text will appear when you type. keep the cursor at the text insertion point and start typing the text. We typed only two words "Hello Word" as shown below. The text appears to the left of the insertion point as you type −

The following are the two important points that will help you while typing −

• You do not need to press Enter to start a new line. As the insertion point reaches the end of the line, Word automatically starts a new one. You will need to press Enter, to add a new paragraph.

• When you want to add more than one space between words, use the Tab key instead of the spacebar. This way you can properly align text by using the proportional fonts.

Backstage View

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In this chapter, we will discuss the Backstage View in Word 2010. The Backstage view was introduced in Word 2010. This acts as the central place for managing your documents. The backstage view helps in creating new documents, saving and opening documents, printing and sharing documents, and so on.

Getting to the Backstage View is easy: Just click the File tab, located in the upper-left corner of the Word Ribbon. If you already do not have any opened document, then you will see a window listing down all the recently opened documents as follows −

If you already have an opened document, then it will display a window showing detail about the opened document as shown below. Backstage view shows three columns when you select most of the available options in the first column.

The first column of the backstage view will have following options −

S.No	Option & Description
1	Save If an existing document is opened, it will be saved as is, otherwise it will display a dialogue box asking for the document name.
2	Save As A dialogue box will be displayed asking for document name and document type, by default it will save in word 2010 format with extension .docx.
3	Open This option is used to open an existing word document.
4	Close This option is used to close an open document.
5	Info This option displays information about the opened document.
6	Recent This option lists down all the recently opened documents
7	New This option is used to open a new document.
8	Print This option is used to print an open document.
9	Save & Send This option will save an open document and will display options to send the document using email, etc.
10	Help This option is used to get the required help about Word 2010.
11	Options This option is used to set various option related to Word 2010.
12	Exit Use this option to close the document and exit.

Document Information

When you click the Info option available in the first column, it displays the following information in the second column of the backstage view −

• Compatibility Mode − If the document is not a native Word 2007/2010 document, a Convert button appears here, enabling you to easily update its format. Otherwise, this category does not appear.

• Permissions − You can use this option to protect your word document. You can set a password so that nobody can open your document, or you can lock the document so that nobody can edit your document.

• Prepare for Sharing − This section highlights important information you should know about your document before you send it to others, such as a record of the edits you made as you developed the document.

• Versions − If the document has been saved several times, you may be able to access the previous versions of it from this section.

Document Properties

When you click the Info option available in the first column, it displays various properties in the third column of the backstage view. These properties include the document size, the number of pages in the document, the total number of words in the document, the name of the author etc.

You can also edit various properties by clicking on the property value and if the property is editable, then it will display a text box where you can add your text like title, tags, comments, Author.

Exit Backstage View

It is simple to exit from the Backstage View. Either click on the File tab or press the Esc button on the keyboard to go back to the working mode of Word.

Explore Window

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In this chapter, we will understand how to explore Window in Word 2010. Following is the basic window which you get when you start the Word application. Let us understand the various important parts of this window..

File Tab

The File tab replaces the Office button from Word 2007. You can click it to check the Backstage view. This is where you come when you need to open or save files, create new documents, print a document, and do other file-related operations.

Quick Access Toolbar

This you will find just above the File tab. This is a convenient resting place for the mostfrequently used commands in Word. You can customize this toolbar based on your comfort.

Ribbon

Ribbon contains commands organized in three components −

• Tabs − These appear across the top of the Ribbon and contain groups of related commands. Home, Insert, Page Layout are examples of ribbon tabs.

• Groups − They organize related commands; each group name appears below the group on the Ribbon. For example, group of commands related to fonts or group of commands related to alignment, etc.

• Commands − Commands appear within each group as mentioned above.

Title bar

This lies in the middle and at the top of the window. Title bar shows the program and document titles.

Rulers

Word has two rulers - a horizontal ruler and a vertical ruler. The horizontal ruler appears just beneath the Ribbon and is used to set margins and tab stops. The vertical ruler appears on the left edge of the Word window and is used to gauge the vertical position of elements on the page.

Help

The Help Icon can be used to get word related help anytime you like. This provides nice tutorial on various subjects related to word.

Zoom Control

Zoom control lets you zoom in for a closer look at your text. The zoom control consists of a slider that you can slide left or right to zoom in or out; you can click the + buttons to increase or decrease the zoom factor.

View Buttons

The group of five buttons located to the left of the Zoom control, near the bottom of the screen, lets you switch through the Word's various document views.

• Print Layout view − This displays pages exactly as they will appear when printed.

• Full Screen Reading view − This gives a full screen view of the document.

• Web Layout view − This shows how a document appears when viewed by a Web browser, such as Internet Explorer.

• Outline view − This lets you work with outlines established using Word’s standard heading styles.

• Draft view − This formats text as it appears on the printed page with a few exceptions. For example, headers and footers aren't shown. Most people prefer this mode.

Document Area

This is the area where you type. The flashing vertical bar is called the insertion point and it represents the location where text will appear when you type.

Status Bar

This displays the document information as well as the insertion point location. From left to right, this bar contains the total number of pages and words in the document, language, etc.

You can configure the status bar by right-clicking anywhere on it and by selecting or deselecting options from the provided list.

Dialog Box Launcher

This appears as very small arrow in the lower-right corner of many groups on the Ribbon. Clicking this button opens a dialog box or task pane that provides more options about the group.

Getting Started Word

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In this chapter, we will discuss how to get started with Word 2010. We will understand how to start a Word 2010 application in simple steps. Assuming you have Microsoft Office 2010 installed in your PC, to start the Word application, follow these steps −

Step 1 − Click the Start button.

Step 2 − Click the All Programs option from the menu.

Step 3 − Search for Microsoft Office from the submenu and click it.

Step 4 − Search for Microsoft Word 2010 from the submenu and click it.

This will launch the Microsoft Word 2010 application and you will see the following window.

 

CPU Architecture

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Microprocessing unit is synonymous to central processing unit, CPU used in traditional computer. Microprocessor (MPU) acts as a device or a group of devices which do the following tasks.

• communicate with peripherals devices
• provide timing signal
• direct data flow
• perform computer tasks as specified by the instructions in memory

8085 Microprocessor

The 8085 microprocessor is an 8-bit general purpose microprocessor which is capable to address 64k of memory. This processor has forty pins, requires +5 V single power supply and a 3-MHz single-phase clock.

Block Diagram

ALU

The ALU perform the computing function of microprocessor. It includes the accumulator, temporary register, arithmetic & logic circuit & and five flags. Result is stored in accumulator & flags.

Block Diagram

Accumulator

It is an 8-bit register that is part of ALU. This register is used to store 8-bit data & in performing arithmetic & logic operation. The result of operation is stored in accumulator.

Diagram

Flags

Flags are programmable. They can be used to store and transfer the data from the registers by using instruction. The ALU includes five flip-flops that are set and reset according to data condition in accumulator and other registers.

• S (Sign) flag − After the execution of an arithmetic operation, if bit D₇ of the result is 1, the sign flag is set. It is used to signed number. In a given byte, if D₇ is 1 means negative number. If it is zero means it is a positive number.

• Z (Zero) flag − The zero flag is set if ALU operation result is 0.

• AC (Auxiliary Carry) flag − In arithmetic operation, when carry is generated by digit D3 and passed on to digit D₄, the AC flag is set. This flag is used only internally BCD operation.

• P (Parity) flag − After arithmetic or logic operation, if result has even number of 1s, the flag is set. If it has odd number of 1s, flag is reset.

• C (Carry) flag − If arithmetic operation result is in a carry, the carry flag is set, otherwise it is reset.

Register section

It is basically a storage device and transfers data from registers by using instructions.

• Stack Pointer (SP) − The stack pointer is also a 16-bit register which is used as a memory pointer. It points to a memory location in Read/Write memory known as stack. In between execution of program, sometime data to be stored in stack. The beginning of the stack is defined by loading a 16-bit address in the stack pointer.

• Program Counter (PC) − This 16-bit register deals with fourth operation to sequence the execution of instruction. This register is also a memory pointer. Memory location have 16-bit address. It is used to store the execution address. The function of the program counter is to point to memory address from which next byte is to be fetched.

• Storage registers − These registers store 8-bit data during a program execution. These registers are identified as B, C, D, E, H, L. They can be combined as register pair BC, DE and HL to perform some 16 bit operations.

Time and Control Section

This unit is responsible to synchronize Microprocessor operation as per the clock pulse and to generate the control signals which are necessary for smooth communication between Microprocessor and peripherals devices. The RD bar and WR bar signals are synchronous pulses which indicates whether data is available on the data bus or not. The control unit is responsible to control the flow of data between microprocessor, memory and peripheral devices.

PIN diagram

All the signal can be classified into six groups

S.N.	Group	Description
1	Address bus	The 8085 microprocessor has 8 signal line, A15 - A8 which are uni directional and used as a high order address bus.
2	Data bus	The signal line AD7 - AD0 are bi-directional for dual purpose. They are used as low order address bus as well as data bus.
3	Control signal and Status signal	Control Signal RD bar − It is a read control signal (active low). If it is active then memory read the data. WR bar − It is write control signal (active low). It is active when written into selected memory. Status signal ALU (Address Latch Enable) − When ALU is high. 8085 microprocessor use address bus. When ALU is low. 8085 microprocessor is use data bus. IO/M bar − This is a status signal used to differentiate between i/o and memory operations. When it is high, it indicate an i/o operation and when it is low, it indicate memory operation. S1 and S0 − These status signals, similar to i/o and memory bar, can identify various operations, but they are rarely used in small system.
4	Power supply and frequency signal	Vcc − +5v power supply. Vss − ground reference. X, X − A crystal is connected at these two pins. The frequency is internally divided by two operate system at 3-MHz, the crystal should have a frequency of 6-MHz. CLK out − This signal can be used as the system clock for other devices.
5	Externally initiated signal	INTR (i/p) − Interrupt request. INTA bar (o/p) − It is used as acknowledge interrupt. TRAP (i/p) − This is non maskable interrupt and has highest priority. HOLD (i/p) − It is used to hold the executing program. HLDA (o/p) − Hold acknowledge. READY (i/p) − This signal is used to delay the microprocessor read or write cycle until a slow responding peripheral is ready to accept or send data. RESET IN bar − When the signal on this pin goes low, the program counter is set to zero, the bus are tri-stated, & MPU is reset. RESET OUT − This signal indicate that MPU is being reset. The signal can be used to reset other devices. RST 7.5, RST 6.5, RST 5.5 (Request interrupt) − It is used to transfer the program control to specific memory location. They have higher priority than INTR interrupt.
6	Serial I/O ports	The 8085 microprocessor has two signals to implement the serial transmission serial input data and serial output data.

Instruction Format

Each instruction is represented by a sequence of bits within the computer. The instruction is divided into group of bits called field. The way instruction is expressed is known as instruction format. It is usually represented in the form of rectangular box. The instruction format may be of the following types.

Variable Instruction Formats

These are the instruction formats in which the instruction length varies on the basis of opcode & address specifiers. For Example, VAX instruction vary between 1 and 53 bytes while X86 instruction vary between 1 and 17 bytes.

Format

Advantage

These formats have good code density.

Drawback

These instruction formats are very difficult to decode and pipeline.

Fixed Instruction Formats

In this type of instruction format, all instructions are of same size. For Example, MIPS, Power PC, Alpha, ARM.

Format

Advantage

They are easy to decode & pipeline.

Drawback

They don't have good code density.

Hybrid Instruction Formats

In this type of instruction formats, we have multiple format length specified by opcode. For example, IBM 360/70, MIPS 16, Thumb.

Format

Advantage

These compromise between code density & instruction of these type are very easy to decode.

Addressing Modes

Addressing mode provides different ways for accessing an address to given data to a processor. Operated data is stored in the memory location, each instruction required certain data on which it has to operate. There are various techniques to specify address of data. These techniques are called Addressing Modes.

• Direct addressing mode − In the direct addressing mode, address of the operand is given in the instruction and data is available in the memory location which is provided in instruction. We will move this data in desired location.

• Indirect addressing mode − In the indirect addressing mode, the instruction specifies a register which contain the address of the operand. Both internal RAM and external RAM can be accessed via indirect addressing mode.

• Immediate addressing mode − In the immediate addressing mode, direct data is given in the operand which move the data in accumulator. It is very fast.

• Relative addressing mode − In the relative address mode, the effective address is determined by the index mode by using the program counter in stead of general purpose processor register. This mode is called relative address mode.

• Index addressing mode − In the index address mode, the effective address of the operand is generated by adding a content value to the contents of the register. This mode is called index address mode.

Memory Devices

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A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instruction. Computer memory is the storage space in computer where data is to be processed and instructions required for processing are stored.

The memory is divided into large number of small parts. Each part is called a cell. Each location or cell has a unique address which varies from zero to memory size minus one.

For example if computer has 64k words, then this memory unit has 64 * 1024 = 65536 memory location. The address of these locations varies from 0 to 65535.

Memory is primarily of two types

• Internal Memory − cache memory and primary/main memory

• External Memory − magnetic disk / optical disk etc.

Characteristics of Memory Hierarchy are following when we go from top to bottom.

• Capacity in terms of storage increases.
• Cost per bit of storage decreases.
• Frequency of access of the memory by the CPU decreases.
• Access time by the CPU increases.

RAM

A RAM constitutes the internal memory of the CPU for storing data, program and program result. It is read/write memory. It is called random access memory (RAM).

Since access time in RAM is independent of the address to the word that is, each storage location inside the memory is as easy to reach as other location & takes the same amount of time. We can reach into the memory at random & extremely fast but can also be quite expensive.

RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when we switch off the computer or if there is a power failure. Hence, a backup uninterruptible power system (UPS) is often used with computers. RAM is small, both in terms of its physical size and in the amount of data it can hold.

RAM is of two types

• Static RAM (SRAM)
• Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

Static RAM (SRAM)

The word static indicates that the memory retains its contents as long as power remains applied. However, data is lost when the power gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM chips use a matrix of 6-transistors and no capacitors. Transistors do not require power to prevent leakage, so SRAM need not have to be refreshed on a regular basis.

Because of the extra space in the matrix, SRAM uses more chips than DRAM for the same amount of storage space, thus making the manufacturing costs higher.

Static RAM is used as cache memory needs to be very fast and small.

Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually refreshed in order for it to maintain the data. This is done by placing the memory on a refresh circuit that rewrites the data several hundred times per second. DRAM is used for most system memory because it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are made up of memory cells. These cells are composed of one capacitor and one transistor.

ROM

ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory from which we can only read but cannot write on it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The information is stored permanently in such memories during manufacture.

A ROM, stores such instruction as are required to start computer when electricity is first turned on, this operation is referred to as bootstrap. ROM chip are not only used in the computer but also in other electronic items like washing machine and microwave oven.

Following are the various types of ROM −

MROM (Masked ROM)

The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that contained a pre-programmed set of data or instructions. These kind of ROMs are known as masked ROMs. It is inexpensive ROM.

PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory)

PROM is read-only memory that can be modified only once by a user. The user buys a blank PROM and enters the desired contents using a PROM programmer. Inside the PROM chip there are small fuses which are burnt open during programming. It can be programmed only once and is not erasable.

EPROM (Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

The EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-violet light for a duration of upto 40 minutes. Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function. During programming an electrical charge is trapped in an insulated gate region. The charge is retained for more than ten years because the charge has no leakage path. For erasing this charge, ultra-violet light is passed through a quartz crystal window (lid). This exposure to ultra-violet light dissipates the charge. During normal use the quartz lid is sealed with a sticker.

EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and Programmable Read Only Memory)

The EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically. It can be erased and reprogrammed about ten thousand times. Both erasing and programming take about 4 to 10 ms (millisecond). In EEPROM, any location can be selectively erased and programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one byte at a time, rather than erasing the entire chip. Hence, the process of re-programming is flexible but slow.

Serial Access Memory

Sequential access means the system must search the storage device from the beginning of the memory address until it finds the required piece of data. Memory device which supports such access is called a Sequential Access Memory or Serial Access Memory. Magnetic tape is an example of serial access memory.

Direct Access Memory

Direct access memory or Random Access Memory, refers to conditions in which a system can go directly to the information that the user wants. Memory device which supports such access is called a Direct Access Memory. Magnetic disks, optical disks are examples of direct access memory.

Cache Memory

Cache memory is a very high speed semiconductor memory which can speed up CPU. It acts as a buffer between the CPU and main memory. It is used to hold those parts of data and program which are most frequently used by CPU. The parts of data and programs, are transferred from disk to cache memory by operating system, from where CPU can access them.

Advantages

• Cache memory is faster than main memory.
• It consumes less access time as compared to main memory.
• It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
• It stores data for temporary use.

Disadvantages

• Cache memory has limited capacity.
• It is very expensive.

Virtual memory is a technique that allows the execution of processes which are not completely available in memory. The main visible advantage of this scheme is that programs can be larger than physical memory. Virtual memory is the separation of user logical memory from physical memory.

This separation allows an extremely large virtual memory to be provided for programmers when only a smaller physical memory is available. Following are the situations, when entire program is not required to be loaded fully in main memory.

• User written error handling routines are used only when an error occurred in the data or computation.

• Certain options and features of a program may be used rarely.

• Many tables are assigned a fixed amount of address space even though only a small amount of the table is actually used.

• The ability to execute a program that is only partially in memory would counter many benefits.

• Less number of I/O would be needed to load or swap each user program into memory.

• A program would no longer be constrained by the amount of physical memory that is available.

• Each user program could take less physical memory, more programs could be run the same time, with a corresponding increase in CPU utilization and throughput.

Auxiliary Memory

Auxiliary memory is much larger in size than main memory but is slower. It normally stores system programs, instruction and data files. It is also known as secondary memory. It can also be used as an overflow/virtual memory in case the main memory capacity has been exceeded. Secondary memories cannot be accessed directly by a processor. First the data/information of auxiliary memory is transferred to the main memory and then that information can be accessed by the CPU. Characteristics of Auxiliary Memory are following −

• Non-volatile memory − Data is not lost when power is cut off.

• Reusable − The data stays in the secondary storage on permanent basis until it is not overwritten or deleted by the user.

• Reliable − Data in secondary storage is safe because of high physical stability of secondary storage device.

• Convenience − With the help of a computer software, authorised people can locate and access the data quickly.

• Capacity − Secondary storage can store large volumes of data in sets of multiple disks.

• Cost − It is much lesser expensive to store data on a tape or disk than primary memory.

Digital Counters

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Counter is a sequential circuit. A digital circuit which is used for a counting pulses is known counter. Counter is the widest application of flip-flops. It is a group of flip-flops with a clock signal applied. Counters are of two types.

• Asynchronous or ripple counters.
• Synchronous counters.

Asynchronous or ripple counters

The logic diagram of a 2-bit ripple up counter is shown in figure. The toggle (T) flip-flop are being used. But we can use the JK flip-flop also with J and K connected permanently to logic 1. External clock is applied to the clock input of flip-flop A and Q_A output is applied to the clock input of the next flip-flop i.e. FF-B.

Logical Diagram

Operation

S.N.	Condition	Operation
1	Initially let both the FFs be in the reset state	QBQA = 00 initially
2	After 1st negative clock edge	As soon as the first negative clock edge is applied, FF-A will toggle and QA will be equal to 1. QA is connected to clock input of FF-B. Since QA has changed from 0 to 1, it is treated as the positive clock edge by FF-B. There is no change in QB because FF-B is a negative edge triggered FF. QBQA = 01 after the first clock pulse.
3	After 2nd negative clock edge	On the arrival of second negative clock edge, FF-A toggles again and QA = 0. The change in QA acts as a negative clock edge for FF-B. So it will also toggle, and QBwill be 1. QBQA = 10 after the second clock pulse.
4	After 3rd negative clock edge	On the arrival of 3rd negative clock edge, FF-A toggles again and QA become 1 from 0. Since this is a positive going change, FF-B does not respond to it and remains inactive. So QB does not change and continues to be equal to 1. QBQA = 11 after the third clock pulse.
5	After 4th negative clock edge	On the arrival of 4th negative clock edge, FF-A toggles again and QA becomes 1 from 0. This negative change in QAacts as clock pulse for FF-B. Hence it toggles to change QBfrom 1 to 0. QBQA = 00 after the fourth clock pulse.

Truth Table

Synchronous counters

If the "clock" pulses are applied to all the flip-flops in a counter simultaneously, then such a counter is called as synchronous counter.

2-bit Synchronous up counter

The J_A and K_A inputs of FF-A are tied to logic 1. So FF-A will work as a toggle flip-flop. The J_B and K_B inputs are connected to Q_A.

Logical Diagram

Operation

S.N.	Condition	Operation
1	Initially let both the FFs be in the reset state	QBQA = 00 initially.
2	After 1st negative clock edge	As soon as the first negative clock edge is applied, FF-A will toggle and QA will change from 0 to 1. But at the instant of application of negative clock edge, QA , JB = KB = 0. Hence FF-B will not change its state. So QB will remain 0. QBQA = 01 after the first clock pulse.
3	After 2nd negative clock edge	On the arrival of second negative clock edge, FF-A toggles again and QA changes from 1 to 0. But at this instant QA was 1. So JB = KB= 1 and FF-B will toggle. Hence QB changes from 0 to 1. QBQA = 10 after the second clock pulse.
4	After 3rd negative clock edge	On application of the third falling clock edge, FF-A will toggle from 0 to 1 but there is no change of state for FF-B. QBQA = 11 after the third clock pulse.
5	After 4th negative clock edge	On application of the next clock pulse, QA will change from 1 to 0 as QB will also change from 1 to 0. QBQA = 00 after the fourth clock pulse.

Classification of counters

Depending on the way in which the counting progresses, the synchronous or asynchronous counters are classified as follows −

• Up counters
• Down counters
• Up/Down counters

UP/DOWN Counter

Up counter and down counter is combined together to obtain an UP/DOWN counter. A mode control (M) input is also provided to select either up or down mode. A combinational circuit is required to be designed and used between each pair of flip-flop in order to achieve the up/down operation.

• Type of up/down counters
• UP/DOWN ripple counters
• UP/DOWN synchronous counter

UP/DOWN Ripple Counters

In the UP/DOWN ripple counter all the FFs operate in the toggle mode. So either T flip-flops or JK flip-flops are to be used. The LSB flip-flop receives clock directly. But the clock to every other FF is obtained from (Q = Q bar) output of the previous FF.

• UP counting mode (M=0) − The Q output of the preceding FF is connected to the clock of the next stage if up counting is to be achieved. For this mode, the mode select input M is at logic 0 (M=0).

• DOWN counting mode (M=1) − If M = 1, then the Q bar output of the preceding FF is connected to the next FF. This will operate the counter in the counting mode.

Example

3-bit binary up/down ripple counter.

• 3-bit − hence three FFs are required.

• UP/DOWN − So a mode control input is essential.

• For a ripple up counter, the Q output of preceding FF is connected to the clock input of the next one.

• For a ripple up counter, the Q output of preceding FF is connected to the clock input of the next one.

• For a ripple down counter, the Q bar output of preceding FF is connected to the clock input of the next one.

• Let the selection of Q and Q bar output of the preceding FF be controlled by the mode control input M such that, If M = 0, UP counting. So connect Q to CLK. If M = 1, DOWN counting. So connect Q bar to CLK.

Block Diagram

Truth Table

Operation

S.N.	Condition	Operation
1	Case 1 − With M = 0 (Up counting mode)	If M = 0 and M bar = 1, then the AND gates 1 and 3 in fig. will be enabled whereas the AND gates 2 and 4 will be disabled. Hence QA gets connected to the clock input of FF-B and QBgets connected to the clock input of FF-C. These connections are same as those for the normal up counter. Thus with M = 0 the circuit work as an up counter.
2	Case 2: With M = 1 (Down counting mode)	If M = 1, then AND gates 2 and 4 in fig. are enabled whereas the AND gates 1 and 3 are disabled. Hence QA bar gets connected to the clock input of FF-B and QB bar gets connected to the clock input of FF-C. These connections will produce a down counter. Thus with M = 1 the circuit works as a down counter.

Modulus Counter (MOD-N Counter)

The 2-bit ripple counter is called as MOD-4 counter and 3-bit ripple counter is called as MOD-8 counter. So in general, an n-bit ripple counter is called as modulo-N counter. Where, MOD number = 2ⁿ.

Type of modulus

• 2-bit up or down (MOD-4)
• 3-bit up or down (MOD-8)
• 4-bit up or down (MOD-16)

Application of counters

• Frequency counters
• Digital clock
• Time measurement
• A to D converter
• Frequency divider circuits
• Digital triangular wave generator.