Data processing

Data processing occurs when data is collected and translated into usable information. Usually performed by a data scientist or team of data scientists, it is important for data processing to be done correctly as not to negatively affect the end product, or data output.

Data processing starts with data in its raw form and converts it into a more readable format (graphs, documents, etc.), giving it the form and context necessary to be interpreted by computers and utilized by employees throughout an organization.

Six stages of data processing

1. Data collection

Collecting data is the first step in data processing. Data is pulled from available sources, including data lakes and data warehoses. It is important that the data sources available are trustworthy and well-built so the data collected (and later used as information) is of the highest possible quality.

2. Data preparation

Once the data is collected, it then enters the data prepration stage. Data preparation, often referred to as “pre-processing” is the stage at which raw data is cleaned up and organized for the following stage of data processing. During preparation, raw data is diligently checked for any errors. The purpose of this step is to eliminate bad data (redundant, incomplete, or incorrect data) and begin to create high-quality data for the best business intelligence.

3. Data input

The clean data is then entered into its destination (perhaps a CRM like Salesforce or a data warehouse like redshift), and translated into a language that it can understand. Data input is the first stage in which raw data begins to take the form of usable information.

4. Processing

During this stage, the data inputted to the computer in the previous stage is actually processed for interpretation. Processing is done using machine learning algorithms, though the process itself may vary slightly depending on the source of data being processed (data lakes, social networks, connected devices etc.) and its intended use (examining advertising patterns, medical diagnosis from connected devices, determining customer needs, etc.).

5. Data output/interpretation

The output/interpretation stage is the stage at which data is finally usable to non-data scientists. It is translated, readable, and often in the form of graphs, videos, images, plain text, etc.). Members of the company or institution can now begin to self-serve the data  for their own data analytics projects.

6. Data storage

The final stage of data processing is storage . After all of the data is processed, it is then stored for future use. While some information may be put to use immediately, much of it will serve a purpose later on. Plus, properly stored data is a necessity for compliance with data protection legislation like GDPR. When data is properly stored, it can be quickly and easily accessed by members of the organization when needed.

Data processing can be defined by the following steps

• Data capture, or data collection,
• Data storage,
• Data conversion (changing to a usable or uniform format),
• Data cleaning and error removal,
• Data validation (checking the conversion and cleaning),
• Data separation and sorting (drawing patterns, relationships, and creating subsets),
• Data summarization and aggregation (combining subsets in different groupings for more information),
• Data presentation and reporting.

There are different types of data processing techniques, depending on what the data is needed for. Types of data processing at a bench level may include:

• Statistical,
• Algebraical,
• Mapping and plotting,
• Forest and tree method,
• Machine learning,
• Linear models,
• Non-linear models,
• Relational processing, and
• Non-relational processing.

These are methodology and techniques which can be applied within the key types of data processing.

What we’re going to discuss in this article is the five main hierarchical types of data processing. Or, in other words, the overarching types of systems in data analytics.

Data Processing by Application Type

The first two key types of data processing I’m going to talk about are scientific data processing and commercial data processing.

1. Scientific Data Processing

When used in scientific study or research and development work, data sets can require quite different methods than commercial data processing.

Scientific data is a special type of data processing that is used in academic and research fields.

It’s vitally important for scientific data that there are no significant errors that contribute to wrongful conclusions. Because of this, the cleaning and validating steps can take a considerably larger amount of time than for commercial data processing.

Scientific data processing needs to draw conclusions, so the steps of sorting and summarization often need to be performed very carefully, using a wide variety of processing tools to ensure no selection biases or wrong relationships are produced.

Scientific data processing often needs a topic expert additional to a data expert to work with quantities.

2. Commercial Data Processing

Commercial data processing has multiple uses, and may not necessarily require complex sorting. It was first used widely in the field of marketing, for customer relationship management applications, and in banking, billing, and payroll functions.

Most of the data caught in these applications is standardized and somewhat error proofed. That is capture fields eliminate errors, so in some cases, raw data can be processed directly, or with minimum and largely automated error checking.

Commercial data processing usually applies standard relational databases and uses batch processing. However, some, in particular, technology applications may use non-relational databases.

There are still many applications within commercial data processing that lean towards a scientific approach, such as predictive market research. These may be considered a hybrid of the two methods.

Data Processing Types by Processing Method

Within the main areas of scientific and commercial processing, different methods are used for applying the processing steps to data. The three main types of data processing we’re going to discuss are automatic/manual, batch, and real-time data processing.

3. Automatic versus Manual Data Processing

It may not seem possible, but even today people still use manual data processing. Bookkeeping data processing functions can be performed from a ledger, customer surveys may be manually collected and processed, and even spreadsheet-based data processing is now considered somewhat manual. In some of the more difficult parts of data processing, a manual component may be needed for intuitive reasoning.

The first technology that led to the development of automated systems in data processing was punch cards used in census counting. Punch cards were also used in the early days of payroll data processing.

The Rise of Computers for Data Processing

Computers started being used by corporations in the 1970s when electronic data processing began to develop. Some of the first applications for automated data processing in the way of specialized databases were developed for customer relationship management (CRM) to drive better sales.

Electronic data management became widespread with the introduction of the personal computer in the 1980s. Spreadsheets provided simple electronic assistance for even everyday data management functions such as personal budgeting and expense allocations.

Database Management

Database management provided more automation of data processing functions, which is why I refer to spreadsheets as a now rather manual tool in data management. The user is required to manipulate all the data in a spreadsheet, almost like a manual system, only the calculations are automated. Whereas in a database, users can extract data relationships and reports relatively easily, providing the setup and entries are correctly managed.

Autonomous databases now look to be a data processing method of the future, especially in the commercial data processing. Oracle and Peloton are poised to offer users more automation with what is termed a “self-driving” database.

This development in the field of automatic data processing, combined with machine learning tools for optimizing and improving service, aims to make accessing and managing data easier for end-users, without the need for highly specialized data professionals in-house.

4. Batch Processing

To save computational time, before the widespread use of distributed systems architecture, or even after it, stand-alone computer systems apply batch processing techniques. This is particularly useful in financial applications or where data requires additional layers of security, such as medical records.

Batch processing completes a range of data processes as a batch by simplifying single commands to provide actions to multiple data sets. 

This is a little like the comparison of a computer spreadsheet to a calculator in some ways. A calculation can be applied with one function, that is one step, to a whole column or series of columns, giving multiple results from one action. The same concept is achieved in batch processing for data. A series of actions or results can be achieved by applying a function to a whole series of data. In this way, computer processing time is far less.

Batch processing can complete a queue of tasks without human intervention, and data systems may program priorities to certain functions or set times when batch processing can be completed.

Banks typically use this process to execute transactions after the close of business, where computers are no longer involved in data capture and can be dedicated to processing functions.

5. Real-Time Data Processing

For commercial uses, many large data processing applications require real-time processing. That is they need to get results from data exactly as it happens. One application of this that most of us can identify with is tracking stock market and currency trends. The data needs to be updated immediately since investors buy in real-time and prices update by the minute. Data on airline schedules and ticketing and GPS tracking applications in transport services have similar needs for real-time updates.

Stream Processing

The most common technology used in real-time processing is stream processing. The data analytics are drawn directly from the stream, that is, at the source. Where data is used to draw conclusions without uploading and transforming, the process is much quicker.

Data Virtualization

Data virtualization techniques are another important development in real-time data processing, where the data remains in its source form, the only information is pulled for the needs of data processing. The beauty of data virtualization is where transformation is not necessary, it is not done, so the error margin is reduced.

Data virtualization and stream processing mean that data analytics can be drawn in real-time much quicker, benefiting many technical and financial applications, reducing processing times and errors.

Other than these popular Data processing Techniques there are three more processing techniques which are mentioned below-

6. Online Processing

This data processing technique is derived from Automatic data processing. This technique is now known as immediate or irregular access handling. Under this technique, the activity by the framework is prepared at the time of operation/processing. It can be viewed easily with the continuous preparation of data sets. This processing method highlights the fast contribution of the exchange of data and connects directly with the databases.

7. Multi Processing

This is the most commonly used data processing technique. However, it is used all over the globe where we have computer-based setups for Data capture and processing.

As the name suggests – Multiprocessing is not bound to one single CPU but has a collection of several CPUs. As the various set of processing devices are included in this method, therefore the outcome efficiency is very useful.

The tasks are broken into frames and then sent to the multiprocessors for processing. The result obtained is expected to be in less time and the output is increased. The additional benefit is every processing unit is independent, thus failure of any will not impact the working of other processing units.

8. Time Sharing

This kind of Data processing is entirely based on time. In this, one unit of processing data is used by several users. Each user is allocated with the set timings on which they need to work on the same CPU/processing Unit.

Intervals are divided into segments, and thus to users, so there is no collapse of timings which makes it a multi-access system. This processing technique is also widely used and mostly entertained in startups.

Quick Tips to Analyze Best Processing Techniques

1. Understanding your requirement is a major point before choosing the best processing techniques for your Project.

2. Filter your data in a much more precise manner so you can apply processing techniques.

3. Recheck your filtered data again in a way that it still represents the first requirement and you don’t miss out on any important fields in it.

4. Think about the OUTPUT which you would like to have so you can follow your idea.

5. Now you have the filter data and the output you wish to have, check the best and most reliable processing technique.

6. Once you choose your technique as per your requirement, it will be easy to follow up for the end result.

7. The chosen technique must be checked simultaneously so there are no loopholes in order to avoid mistakes.

8. Always apply ETL functions to recheck your datasets.

9. With this, don’t forget to apply a timeline to your requirement, as without a specific timeline, it is useless to apply energy.

10. Test your OUTPUT again with the initial requirement for better delivery.

Threat

In computer security, a threat is a potential negative action or event facilitated by a vulnerability that results in an unwanted impact to a computer system or application.

Physical Threats

A physical threat is a potential cause of an incident that may result in loss or physical damage to the computer systems.

The following list classifies the physical threats into three (3) main categories;

• Internal: The threats include fire, unstable power supply, humidity in the rooms housing the hardware, etc.

• External: These threats include Lightning, floods, earthquakes, etc.

• Human: These threats include theft, vandalism of the infrastructure and/or hardware, disruption, accidental or intentional errors.

To protect computer systems from the above mentioned physical threats, an organization must have physical security control measures.

The following list shows some of the possible measures that can be taken:

• Internal: Fire threats could be prevented by the use of automatic fire detectors and extinguishers that do not use water to put out a fire. The unstable power supply can be prevented by the use of voltage controllers. An air conditioner can be used to control the humidity in the computer room.

• External: Lightning protection systems can be used to protect computer systems against such attacks. Lightning protection systems are not 100% perfect, but to a certain extent, they reduce the chances of Lightning causing damage. Housing computer systems in high lands are one of the possible ways of protecting systems against floods.

• Humans: Threats such as theft can be prevented by use of locked doors and restricted access to computer rooms.

Non-physical threats

A non-physical threat is a potential cause of an incident that may result in;

• Loss or corruption of system data

• Disrupt business operations that rely on computer systems

• Loss of sensitive information

• Illegal monitoring of activities on computer systems

• Cyber Security Breaches

• Others

The non-physical threats are also known as logical threats. The following list is the common types of non-physical threats;

• Virus

• Trojans

• Worms

• Spyware

• Key loggers

• Adware

• Denial of Service Attacks

• Distributed Denial of Service Attacks

• Unauthorized access to computer systems resources such as data

• Phishing

• Other Computer Security Risks

Types of Computer Security Threats

There are several types of computer security threats such as Trojans, Virus, Adware, Malware, Rootkit, hackers and much more. Check some of the most harmful types of computer Security Threats.

COMPUTER VIRUS

A Computer Virus is a malicious program, which replicates itself and infects the files and programs of your PC and can make them non-functional.

COMPUTER WORMS

A self-replicating computer program that spreads malicious codes, computer worms make use of the network to send copies of the original codes to other PCS. It can also go to the extent of sending transferring documents utilizing the email of the user.

SCAREWARE

Scareware is a malware that tricks victims to buy software by displaying fake virus alerts. A scareware infected PC may get pop-ups of fake malware threats and to get rid of those, users are prompted to purchase a fake anti-malware software.

KEYLOGGER

Also known as a keystroke logger, Keyloggers can track the real-time activity of a user on his computer. Keylogger runs in the background and records all keystrokes made by a user and passes the information to the hacker with the motive to steal password and banking details.

ROOTKIT

A rootkit is considered extremely dangerous as they appear to be legitimate files and deceives the computer user. Rootkit masks viruses and worms and makes them appear as necessary files. These are very difficult to remove and only an antivirus with the anti-rootkit feature can remove a rootkit.

Tips for Best Computer Security

For best computer security, you must follow certain guidelines, which are also called computer best practices. 1. Use the best antivirus software, which not only provides protection to your PC but also internet protection and guards against cyber threats. 2. Do not download untrusted email attachments and these may carry harmful malware. 3. Never download software from unreliable sites as they may come with a virus that may infect your system as soon as you install the software.

To protect computer systems from the above-mentioned threats, an organization must have logical security measures in place. The following list shows some of the possible measures that can be taken to protect cyber security threats

 

To protect against viruses, Trojans, worms, etc. an organization can use anti-virus software. In additional to the anti-virus software, an organization can also have control measures on the usage of external storage devices and visiting the website that is most likely to download unauthorized programs onto the user’s computer.

Unauthorized access to computer system resources can be prevented by the use of authentication methods. The authentication methods can be, in the form of user ids and strong passwords, smart cards or biometric, etc.

Intrusion-detection/prevention systems can be used to protect against denial of service attacks.There are other measures too that can be put in place to avoid denial of service attacks.

Summary

• A threat is any activity that can lead to data loss/corruption through to disruption of normal business operations.

• There are physical and non-physical threats

• Physical threats cause damage to computer systems hardware and infrastructure. Examples include theft, vandalism through to natural disasters.

• Non-physical threats target the software and data on the computer systems.

 

Multimedia computer

A multimedia computer is a computer that is optimized for high multimedia performance. Early home computers lacked the power and storage necessary for true multimedia.

The Basic Elements of Multimedia

• Text

• Graphic

• Animation

• Video

• Audio

TEXT 

Text are characters that are used to create words, sentences, and paragraphs.

Graphics 

A digital representation of non-text information, such as a drawing, chart, or photograph.

Animation 

Animation is Flipping through a series of still images. It is a series of graphics that create an illusion of motion.

Video

Video means the photographic images that are played back at speeds of 15 to 30 frames a second and the provide the appearance of full motion.

Audio 

Audio means music, speech, or any other sound.

Categorization

Two types of Multimedia presentation

• Linear Presentation

• Non-linear Interactive

 

Linear active content progresses often without any navigational control for the viewer such as a cinema presentation.

Non-linear uses interactivity to control progress as with a video game or self-paced computer based training. Hypermedia is an example of non-linear content.

Usage

Multimedia finds its application in various areas including, but not limited to:

• Advertisements

• Art

• Education

• Entertainment

• Engineering

• Medicine

• Mathematics

• Business

• Scientific research

Advantages of using Multimedia

• It is very user-friendly. It doesn’t take much energy out of the user, in the sense that you can sit and watch the presentation, you can read the text and hear the audio. 

• It is multi sensorial. It uses a lot of the user’s senses while making use of multimedia, for example hearing, seeing and talking.It is integrated and interactive. All the different mediums are integrated through the digitisation process. Interactivity is heightened by the possibility of easy feedback.

• It is flexible. Being digital, this media can easily be changed to fit different situations and audiences.

• It can be used for a wide variety of audiences, ranging from one person to a whole group.

Disadvantages of using Multimedia

• Information overload. Because it is so easy to use, it can contain too much information at once.

• It takes time to compile. Even though it is flexible, it takes time to put the original draft together.

• It can be expensive. As mentioned in one of my previous posts, multimedia makes use of a wide range of resources, which can cost you a large amount of money.

• Too much makes it unpractical. Large files like video and audio has an effect of the time it takes for your presentation to load. Adding too much can mean that you have to use a larger computer to store the files.

 

 

 

Development

Computer science, the study of computers and computing, including their theoretical and algorithmic foundations, hardware and software, and their uses for processing information. The discipline of computer science includes the study of algorithms and data structures, computer and network design, modeling data and information processes, and artificial intelligence. Computer science draws some of its foundations from mathematics and engineering and therefore incorporates techniques from areas such as queueing theory, probability and statistics, and electronic circuit design. Computer science also makes heavy use of hypothesis testing and experimentation during the conceptualization, design, measurement, and refinement of new algorithms, information structures, and computer architectures.

Computer science is considered as part of a family of five separate yet interrelated disciplines: computer engineering, computer science, information systems, information technology, and software engineering. This family has come to be known collectively as the discipline of computing. These five disciplines are interrelated in the sense that computing is their object of study, but they are separate since each has its own research perspective and curricular focus. (Since 1991 the Association for Computing Machinery [ACM], the IEEE Computer Society [IEEE-CS], and the Association for Information Systems [AIS] have collaborated to develop and update the taxonomy of these five interrelated disciplines and the guidelines that educational institutions worldwide use for their undergraduate, graduate, and research programs.)

The major subfields of computer science include the traditional study of computer architecture, programming languages, and software development. However, they also include computational science (the use of algorithmic techniques for modeling scientific data), graphics and visualization, human-computer interaction, databases and information systems, networks, and the social and professional issues that are unique to the practice of computer science. As may be evident, some of these subfields overlap in their activities with other modern fields, such as bioinformatics and computational chemistry. These overlaps are the consequence of a tendency among computer scientists to recognize and act upon their field’s many interdisciplinary connections.

Development Of Computer Science

Computer science emerged as an independent discipline in the early 1960s, although the electronic digital computer that is the object of its study was invented some two decades earlier. The roots of computer science lie primarily in the related fields of mathematics, electrical engineering, physics, and management information systems.

Mathmeatics is the source of two key concepts in the development of the computer—the idea that all information can be represented as sequences of zeros and ones and the abstract notion of a “stored program.” In the binary number system, numbers are represented by a sequence of the binary digits 0 and 1 in the same way that numbers in the familiar decimal system are represented using the digits 0 through 9. The relative ease with which two states (e.g., high and low voltage) can be realized in electrical and electronic devices led naturally to the binary digit, or bit, becoming the basic unit of data storage and transmission in a computer system.

Electrical Engineering provides the basics of circuit design—namely, the idea that electrical impulses input to a circuit can be combined using Boolean Algebra to produce arbitrary outputs. (The Boolean algebra developed in the 19th century supplied a formalism for designing a circuit with binary input values of zeros and ones [false or true, respectively, in the terminology of logic] to yield any desired combination of zeros and ones as output.) The invention of the transistor and the miniaturization of circuits, along with the invention of electronic, magnetic, and optical media for the storage and transmission of information, resulted from advances in electrical engineering and physics.

Managment Information Systems, originally called data processing  systems, provided early ideas from which various computer science concepts such as sorting, searching, databases, information retrievel, and graphical user interfaces evolved. Large corporations housed computers that stored information that was central to the activities of running a business—payroll, accounting, inventory management, production control, shipping, and receiving.

 

Computer security

Computer security, cybersecurity or information technology security is the protection of computer systems and networks from the theft of or damage to their hardware, software, or electronic data, as well as from the disruption or misdirection of the services they provide.

Computer Security and its types

• Information Security is securing information from unauthorized access, modification & deletion

• Application Security is securing an application by building security features to prevent from Cyber Threats such as SQL injection, DoS attacks, data breaches and etc.

• Computer Security means securing a standalone machine by keeping it updated and patched

• Network Security is by securing both the software and hardware technologies

• Cyber Security is defined as protecting computer systems, which communicate over the computer networks

Why is Computer Security Important?

In this digital era, we all want to keep our computers and our personal information secure and hence computer security is important to keep our personal information protected. It is also important to maintain our computer security and its overall health by preventing viruses and malware which would impact on the system performance.

Computer Security Practices

Computer security threats are becoming relentlessly inventive these days. There is much need for one to arm oneself with information and resources to safeguard against these complex and growing computer security threats and stay safe online. Some preventive steps you can take include:

• Secure your computer physically by:
  • Installing reliable, reputable security and anti-virus software
  • Activating your firewall, because a firewall acts as a security guard between the internet and your local area network 
• Stay up-to-date on the latest software and news surrounding your devices and perform software updates as soon as they become available
• Avoid clicking on email attachments unless you know the source 
• Change passwords regularly, using a unique combination of numbers, letters and case types
• Use the internet with caution and ignore pop-ups, drive-by downloads while surfing
• Taking the time to research the basic aspects of computer security and educate yourself on evolving cyber-threats
• Perform daily full system scans and create a periodic system backup schedule to ensure your data is retrievable should something happen to your computer.

Computer security threats

Comupter Security Threats are possible dangers that can possibly hamper the normal functioning of your computer. In the present age, cyber threats are constantly increasing as the world is going digital. The most harmful types of computer security are:

Viruses

A computer virus is a malicious program which is loaded into the user’s computer without user’s knowledge. It replicates itself and infects the files and programs on the user’s PC. The ultimate goal of a virus is to ensure that the victim’s computer will never be able to operate properly or even at all. 

Computer Worm

A computer worm is a software program that can copy itself from one computer to another, without human interaction. The potential risk here is that it will use up your computer hard disk space because a worm can replicate in greate volume and with great speed.

Phishing

Disguising as a trustworthy person or business, phishers attempt to steal sensitive financial or personal information through fraudulent email or instant messages. Phishing in unfortunately very easy to execute. You are deluded into thinking it’s the legitimate mail and you may enter your personal information.

Botnet

A botnet is a group of computers connected to the internet, that have been compromised by a hacker using a computer virus. An individual computer is called ‘zombie computer’. The result of this threat is the victim’s computer, which is the bot will be used for malicious activities and for a larger scale attack like DDoS.

Rootkit

A rootkit is a computer program designed to provide continued privileged access to a computer while actively hiding its presence. Once a rootkit has been installed, the controller of the rootkit will be able to remotely execute files and change system configurations on the host machine.

Keylogger

Also known as a keystroke logger, keyloggers can track the real-time activity of a user on his computer. It keeps a record of all the keystrokes made by user keyboard. Keylogger is also a very powerful threat to steal people’s login credential such as username and password.

 

Fundamental Concepts

A computer is basically a programmable machine capable to perform arithmetic and logical operations automatically and sequentially. It is also known as a data processor, as it can store, process, and retrieve data as per the wish of the user.

Basic Functions of a Computer

Taking data and instructions from a user, processing the data as per instructions, and displaying or storing the processed data, are the four major functions of a computer. These functions are also known as the input function, process function, output function, and storage function, respectively.

To provide these functions, a computer uses its components or devices. Usually, components of a computer are designed to perform only one of these four functions. But, some specialized components or devices are designed to perform two, three or all four functions. For example, a hard disk can perform three functions: input (when files are read), storage (when files are saved), and output (when files are written).

Components or devices of a computer, based on the function in which they are used, can be classified into four major types: the input devices, output devices, storage devices, and processing devices. For example, if a component processes the given instructions, the component is known as the processing device. Or if a device displays the processed data, the device is known as the output device.

Input function and devices

 

A computer is a data processing machine. It does nothing until a user (or a script or a program) provides the data that needs to be processed and the instructions that tell it how to process the data.

Any standard device or component that a user uses to instruct a computer is known as the standard input device. In other words, a computer uses its standard input devices or components to get instructions from a user.

The most common input devices are the keyboard and mouse. Almost all modern computers have these devices. Other common input devices are scanners, microphones, USB drives, and webcams.

Input data and instruction can also be generated from a non-standard input device such as the hard disk and CD/DVD. For example, a batch file in the Windows system may instruct the CPU to execute a program or a script at a particular time.

Installation disks are another good example of non-standard input devices. Usually, they contain a script or an executable program that automatically starts the installation process as soon as the disk is read.

Process function and devices

Once the data and instructions are received by the input function, the computer starts the processing function. In this function, a computer processes the received data according to the instructions.

To process the input data according to the instructions, the computer uses the CPU. A CPU is the main processing component of a computer. It processes user instructions, executes scripts and programs, and runs commands of the OS that provide a platform for installing and using application software.

Other important processing components are auxiliary processors. Auxiliary processors are also known as onboard processors. Auxiliary processors are used in devices to enhance their functionalities. You can think of an auxiliary processor as the private CPU of a device.

Only components or devices that provide the complex functionality such as Graphics cards, I/O devices, and network interface cards use auxiliary processors. For example, if a user draws an image, the auxiliary processor on the graphics card performs all calculations that require in drawing the image on the display device.

The following image shows a sample of both a CPU and an auxiliary processor.

Output function and devices

 

After processing the input data, the CPU, auxiliary processor, or the process function sends the processed data to the output function or to the default or configured output device. By default, computers use monitors as the default output device.

Aside from monitor, a variety of output devices are also available. Each output device presents the processed data in a different form, for example, a monitor, a printer, and a speaker displays, prints, and plays the processed data, respectively.

A user, based on his requirement, can connect and use two, three or more output devices to the computer. For example, after viewing the processed data, a user can send it to the printer for printing.

Storage function and devices

Storing data and information is the fourth major function of a computer. This function allows us to save the processed data for later use. To store data and information, a computer uses two types of storage components: temporary and permanent.

Temporary storage components are used to store data temporarily. Data stored in a temporary storage component is erased when the system is shutdown. RAM is a compulsory temporary storage component. A computer uses the ram to store the running applications and their data.

Permanent storage components are used to store data permanently. Data stored in a permanent storage component is not erased when the system is shutdown. The hard disk is the most common permanent storage component. Usually, all computers have at least one hard disk to store data. Other common permanent storage components or devices are external drives, USB drives, and CD/DVD.

The 4 Primary Hardware Concerns for New Computers

Computer descriptions these days come with a lot of specifications that use a lot of technical jargon. This can be confusing if you aren't sure what you're looking for! By following the information listed below, you can look for key words that will help you zero in on the computer that will last for your entire time here at UNI!

Computer Speed (the processor)

The most common processor found in computers today is from Intel. The Intel Core series of processors perform well and are generally recommended for a computer that you will bring to UNI. When reading a computer listing, look for something similar to Intel 6th generation Core processors. For gaming, intense graphic design or video editing, or just maximum longevity, pick a Core i7 processor (the most powerful). The Core i7 processor will deliver the fastest speed and most processing power. Keep in mind, on laptops, a Core i7 may slightly reduce the battery life due to the extra power needs for the stronger processor. UNI Information technology recommends a Core i5 at a minimum.

Storage (the hard drive)

Hard drives come in two varieties today: the magnetic, spinning disk (HDD) or the Solid State Drive (SSD). SSDs are more expensive, but recommended for maximum longevity of your computer.

• The spinning disk (HDD) is generally cheaper and comes in much larger sizes. These drives are good for storage (for example, if you have a lot of digital pictures, music, or movies). You can find HDDs in 500GB to several terabytes in size.
• The Solid State Drive (SSD) is generally smaller in terms of amount of storage available and more expensive. It is however, much faster than it's older, HDD cousin. Upgrading from an HDD to a SSD in an older computer will make it have new life! Ensuring the computer you bring to UNI has an SSD will make it faster and lighter. With cloud storage available to you at UNI (Google Drive), the smaller hard drive might not be an issue. Pick up an SSD no smaller than 256GB if possible.

Memory (RAM)

If a hard drive is like the bookshelf in a computer (where the computer stores information for retrieval, like a bookshelf storing books) then the RAM or computer's memory is like the desk surface. The larger the desk surface (the greater the amount of RAM or memory), the more things a person can do at once. If you have a large desk you can have several papers laying out at once, a book open, and generally it is more conducive to having more research materials spread out and available. Likewise, the more memory your computer has, the more programs or applications it can run at the same time. UNI recommends no less than 8GB of RAM. For maximum longevity, pick 16GB.

WiFi Ability (wireless network card)

UNI has deployed high-speed and secure WiFi across campus in areas that are important to students like Maucker Union, the Rod Library, classrooms, and even outside in some instances! To take full advantage of the WiFi, you should ensure that your wireless network card is a dual band radio capable of both 2.4GHz and 5GHz frequencies (most modern computers have this). You'll want to look for dual band AC wireless or something similar in the specifications listing. This will be the most compatible with UNI's wireless network.

Other Concerns for a New Computer

If you've followed the hardware advice above, you should have a computer that is fairly well equipped for your entire collegiate career here at UNI. There are a few other things to consider, however, when making a new computer purchase. The following section will review those with you.

Warranty

UNI Information Technology recommends a minimum three year hardware warranty. This will ensure the manufacturer or reseller will cover any broken computer hardware for at least three years. This is especially important for laptops as they are harder to work on yourself. 

UNI does not recommend that you purchase any type of software tuning/maintenance/assistance from your manufacturer or reseller. Some companies will try and sell you a "tune up" before you even walk out of the door! You do not need this assistance as Information Technology at UNI can help you with the software on your computer.

Size/Weight

More and more professors are allowing the use of laptops during class. A smaller, lighter laptop will be easier to carry across campus during your day. It is also more likely to have better battery life. Larger, heavier laptops are often-times better for gaming or video-intense applications, but will not be as fun to carry across campus.

Operating System

For Windows-based computers, UNI Information Technology recommends Windows 10 home or professional.

For Apple computers, UNI recommends the latest version of macOS.

Major/Field of Study

Some majors or fields of study use different types of computer hardware. It might be worth checking with the departmental office of the department your major resides in.

Motherboard

The motherboard is the backbone that ties the computer's components together at one spot and allows them to talk to each other. Without it, none of the computer pieces, such as the CPU, GPU, or hard drive, could interact. Total motherboard functionality is necessary for a computer to work well.

A motherboard provides connectivity between the hardware components of a computer, like the processor (CPU), memory (RAM), hard drive, and video card. There are multiple types of motherboards, designed to fit different types and sizes of computers.

Each type of motherboard is designed to work with specific types of processors and memory, so they don't work with every processor and type of memory. However, hard drives are mostly universal and work with the majority of motherboards, regardless of the type or brand.

Below is a picture of the ASUS P5AD2-E motherboard with labels next to each of its major components. Clicking on the image directs you to a larger and more detailed version.

What was the first motherboard?

The first motherboard is considered to be one used in the IBM Personal Computer, released in 1981. At the time, IBM called it a "planar" instead of a motherboard. The IBM Personal Computer and the motherboard inside it would set the standard for IBM-compatible computer hardware going forward.

Motherboard components

• Expension Slots
• 3 pin case fan connectors.
• Back pane connectors.
• Heat Sink.
• Inductor.
• Capacitor.
• CPU socket.
• Northbridge.
• Screw Hole.
• Memory Slot.
• Super I/O.
• Floopy Connection etc.

The Characteristics of a Motherboard

While many people think of the CPU as their computer's brain, the motherboard is like its nervous system and spinal cord. Not only does the motherboard provide a place for the CPU to sit, but it also handles every bit of data that passes in and out of the CPU.

Form Factor

While you can get capable motherboards in any size, its form factor is an important factor in choosing a motherboard. If you want to build a very small computer, a small form-factor board like a 9.6-inch square micro-ATX or 6.7-inch square mini-ITX board is your best choice. Larger motherboards, like the 11.2-by-8.2 inch mini-ATX or 12-by-9.6 inch full-size ATX board, not only fit in larger cases, but also have room for more components, connectors and expansion slots.

CPU Socket and Chipset

When choosing a motherboard, look for one with a CPU socket that will accommodate your chosen type of CPU. Not only do processors from Intel and AMD have different socket requirements, but different processors from the same manufacturers will also require a specialized socket. In other words, an Intel motherboard won't support an AMD processor and won't support certain Intel processors as well. In addition to choosing a compatible socket, the chipset on the motherboard will determine how quickly the computer can run, what additional features it supports and how much memory it can access.

Slots

Motherboards typically have three types of slots. Memory slots let you plug RAM modules into the computer. The more slots you have, the more memory you can add. The slots are also specific to a given type of RAM, so a motherboard with double data rate type 3 slots will only accept DDR3 memory modules. Motherboards also have high-speed PCI Express slots for graphics cards as well as regular PCI slots for expansion cards. While devices that once would have plugged into a PCI slot, like video capture cards or modems, are frequently now available as USB devices, the high-speed PCI-Express x16 slots are still necessities for graphics cards.

Connectors

Motherboards have a broad range of both internal and external connectors. At a minimum, you can expect to find internal USB headers and external USB ports, internal serial advanced technology attachment ports for drives, connectors for case LEDs and switches, and external audio ports. Some motherboards add support for USB 3.0, graphics connectors for their on-board graphics system, an external eSATA port for high-speed connections to external drives and even legacy ports like parallel or serial connectors.