Central processing unit (CPU)

The processor is responsible for logical and computational operations processing data. It is the main part of the computer. Externally, the CPU is a small square board covered with a metal plate at the top. It is necessary to use a metal cover to protect the microchips. The bottom surface includes a large number of pins. The CPU is installed in a socket on the motherboard.

Any computing device needs a CPU. The CPU is connected to the memory system and the input and output devices.

Components of the processor

The CPU consists of:

• CPU lid. It ensures ingress protection against small particles and prevents mechanical damage. The lid is made of a material with a high thermal conductivity coefficient. Thus, heat can be extracted from the chip, and the CPU temperature is maintained at a normal range.

• The processor crystal.

All computation operations take place through the processor crystal. The crystal is made of silicon. There can be several crystals.

• Textolite plate.

All parts of the processor are attached to this plate. The backside of the textolite plate has a lot of pins.

Integrated graphics processor

Besides the main core, one part of a CPU may be the graphics processor. There is no requirement to have an integrated graphics core, as not every CPU has one. It provides support for graphics.

Integrated graphics are more common in laptops or office desktops, which do not have high graphics requirements.

CPU Throttling

This is a safety mechanism that prevents the CPU from overheating or causing hardware failures during operation. The mechanism activates when the temperature rises to a critical level. As a result, protection is provided by reducing the performance of the core.

Through the BIOS settings, it is possible to forcibly change the trotting settings to overclock the CPU without triggering the protection.

Principle of operation

1. Sequential data processing. The CPU extracts the necessary data from the program code each time a process is started. This data is loaded into the cache memory.
2. Caching means using an additional fast memory to store copies of data blocks from the main (RAM) memory. There is a distinction between level 1, level 2, and level 3 caches. Level 1 cache has the shortest access time and smallest size. Layer 2 cache usually has a much longer access time. Layer 3 cache is the largest and quite slow but still much faster than RAM.
3. Data is divided into two categories when it comes out of the cache: instructions and values. Instructions are redirected to the instruction registers, and values are transferred to the data registers. Registers refer to memory cells (SRAM).
4. Registers provide service to the ALU (arithmetic and logic unit). The ALU supplies power to the processor and processes the mathematical data.

The dotted line indicates the CPU.

• 1. Arithmetic and logic unit (~ 1 KB, 1-2 cycles)
• 2. Registers (~ 100 KB, 2-3 cycles)
• 3. Level 1 instruction cache (~ 100 KB, 2-3 cycles)
• 4. Level 1 data cache (~ 100 KB, 2-3 cycles)
• 5. Level 2 cache (~500 KB, 3-5 cycles)
• 6. Level 3 cache (~ 10-15 MB, 3-5 cycles)
• 7. DRAM - dynamic random-access memory (~ 10 GB, 50-200 cycles)
• 8. Storage space (~ 1000 GB, 50,000 cycles)

5. Computation results are divided into two different parts- finished and unfinished, which are sent back to the cache memory.
6. At the end of the computing cycle, the final result is written to RAM. This is necessary to free up space in the cache buffer, which is needed for new operations.  

Specifications

Clock rate

The rate of cycle transition from one step to the next is determined by the clock. The frequency of the clock pulses per unit time (1 second) is called the clock rate. The measurement unit of the clock frequency is Hertz. The higher the clock rate, the more operations the computer carries out.

When a voltage is applied to the clock resonator, electrical current oscillates due to the action of a quartz crystal. These oscillations are sent to a clock generator, which converts them into pulses that are sent to the data buses.

Bit width

The bit width of the CPU specifies the amount of data processing per clock cycle, which is exchanged between the CPU and the main memory.

The data processing size can be as follows:

• 1 byte (8 bit);
• 2 bytes (16 bits);
• 4 bytes (32 bit);
• 8 bytes (64 bit).

Electric energy consumption

The electric energy consumption of a processor determines its performance. For example, dual-core processors running at low frequencies consume less energy than an octa-core processor.

Architecture

In terms of hardware, the architecture of a CPU (also called microarchitecture) is the internal design of a CPU of the same generation or model.

In terms of software, the architecture of a CPU is the compatibility with a specific set of instructions (x86), their structure (register set, addressing system), and the way they are implemented (program counter). That is the ability of an x86 compatible program to work on the x86 architecture. At the same time, such a program will not work on other systems (e.g., ARM).

Main CPU architectures:

• CISC architecture (Complex Instruction Set Computer).
• RISC architecture (Reduced Instruction Set Computer).
• MISC architecture (Minimal Instruction Set Computer).
• VLIW architecture (Very Long Instruction Word).
• Hybrid architecture.

Motherboard

The motherboard is a multilayer sheet of printed circuit board that contains the copper conductor rails that connect the motherboard's components to one another.

The motherboard and the connected devices are mounted inside the computer case with the power supply and cooling system to form the computer chassis.

Components of a computer motherboard

1. CMOS battery

The battery on the motherboard provides an autonomous power supply for the BIOS after the computer is turned off. Otherwise, the date, time, and BIOS settings will not be saved. In some cases, the computer may not start.

Motherboard has a slot designed to hold one of three types of batteries:

• CR2032 has a capacity of 210-230 mAh;
• CR2025 has a capacity of 150 mAh;
• CR2016 has a capacity of 75-90 mAh.

The voltage of these batteries is 3 V.

The first two letters occurring in the designation define the composition of the battery:

CR is lithium.

The first 2 digits are the diameter in millimeters, the second 2 digits are the thickness in tenths of a millimeter.

A smaller battery can be installed on the laptop's motherboard - for example, CR 1220.

2. The F_USB1 and F_USB2 connectors are used for the USB ports.

Each USB connector on the motherboard supports the connection of two USB ports on the computer chassis.

3. PCI express x16 and PCI express x4.

These are the connectors for connecting video cards.

4. PCI 1, PCI 2 are universal and more obsolete connectors.

Sound cards, network cards, and other expansion cards can be plugged into these slots.

5. TPM connector is a connector to install a TPM cryptoprocessor, which stores cryptographic keys for data protection.

6. PCIE X 1_1 connector, PCIEX 1_2 connector, PCIEX 1_3 connector.

These are modern high-speed connectors with a smaller size. They connect sound cards, TV tuners, network cards, and many different expansion cards.

7. COM connector is a serial port.

This port allows you to connect your computer to an uninterruptible power supply (UPS), satellite receivers, and cash registers. Also, using this port, you can connect two computers into one network.

8. Front panel audio connector

This connector on the motherboard supports the connection of headphones, speakers, or a microphone to the computer chassis.

9. Bus controllers (microcontrollers) are designed to control electronic devices.

10. CPU_ FAN, SYS_FAN1, SYS_FAN2, SYS_FAN3 connectors.

They are used to connect the fans of the cooling system.

11. Connectors for external peripherals such as keyboard, mouse, speakers, etc.

12. ATX_12V connector.

This is an additional eight-pin connector. It is needed for duplicating wires in case of high current consumption by the processor to take the load off the main ATX connector (18).

The 13, 14, 15 elements represent a unified system of power supply unit.

13. MOSFET Transistors.

These transistors make up the VRM voltage regulator module, which controls how much voltage is delivered to components on the motherboard, such as the CPU or graphics card.

14. The chokes create the necessary inductance.

15. The capacitors provide the necessary capacitance.

They absorb the pulses from the power supply to the motherboard socket.

16. CPU socket.

A socket is a slot on the motherboard where the processor is installed. The socket type is the most important specification of the computer. It determines the list of compatible chipsets, processors, motherboards, and cooling systems.

Sockets vary in the number of pins, which usually increases with the power and complexity of the processors.

You should consider the type of socket when choosing a motherboard. Technically, sockets can vary from each other by the availability of additional controllers, performance, and the ability to support the integrated graphics core of the processor.

It is important to remember that if you choose a relatively outdated socket, you cannot upgrade your computer by installing a new processor. When buying a motherboard, it is necessary to study the socket installed in it and the processors supported by this socket.

17. DIMM memory card slots.

18. ATX Connector for power supply unit.

19. Slot M.2. This slot allows you to connect an SSD. MSATS Signature stands for Plug-in SSD Form Factor.

20. Southbridge or chipset. This is located under the heatsink.

It ensures the proper operation of all other devices that are included in the motherboard.

21. The B_BIOS and M_BIOS chips are Dual Bios.

 

M_Bios is the primary microchip. B_Bios is the reserve one if the M_Bios chip fails to update or delete the Bios system.

22 and 23 are SATA 2 (blue) and SATA 3 (white) connectors.

They are dedicated to connect hard drives, CD, DVD drives, and SSD drives. The SATA 2 connector supports speeds up to 3 Gbit/s. The SATA 3 connector is more advanced, as it supports speeds up to 6 Gbit/s.

Chipset

A chipset is a series of chips on the motherboard that ensures the connection between the processor and the peripherals of the system (RAM, storage, USB ports, etc.). The ability to overclock the CPU in many ways depends on the chipset. This chipset is classified as one of the system's most important components. It determines the system's performance, expandability, stability under different settings and conditions, upgrades, etc.

1. Central processor
2. Clock generator
3. Bus
4. Chipset
5. Northbridge. In modern computers, integrated into the CPU.
6. High-speed PCI-Express or AGP bus.
7. Graphics adapter slot
8. Memory bus
9. Memory slots
10. Internal bus
11. Southbridge
12. PCI bus
13. PCI slots
14. Motherboard connectors
15. LPC bus
16. BIOS
17. Super I/O controller.

Form Factor

Form factor is defined as a standard that determines the size of the motherboard for a computer case, which matches one of the three commonly used formats: ATX (1), Micro-ATX (2), Mini-ITX (3).

Dimensions: ATX 305x244 mm; Micro ATX 244x244 mm; Mini ITX 170x170 mm.

Smaller boards allow you to reduce the size of the computer chassis. On these boards, all the elements are mounted close to each other. However, this increases the temperature of the computer case and doesn't allow to make a lot of connectors.

The motherboard form factor that is appropriate for the specific case is listed on the motherboard manufacturer's websites.

Special Symbols in Excel

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If you want to insert some symbols or special characters that are not found on the keyboard in that case you need to use the Symbols option.

Using Symbols

Go to Insert » Symbols » Symbol to view available symbols. You can see many symbols available there like Pi, alpha, beta, etc.

Select the symbol you want to add and click insert to use the symbol.

Using Special Characters

Go to Insert » Symbols » Special Characters to view the available special characters. You can see many special characters available there like Copyright, Registered etc.

Select the special character you want to add and click insert, to use the special character.

Zoom In/Out in Excel

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Zoom Slider

By default, everything on screen is displayed at 100% in MS Excel. You can change the zoom percentage from 10% (tiny) to 400% (huge). Zooming doesn’t change the font size, so it has no effect on the printed output.

You can view the zoom slider at the right bottom of the workbook as shown below.

Zoom In

You can zoom in the workbook by moving the slider to the right. It will change the only view of the workbook. You can have maximum of 400% zoom in. See the below screen-shot.

Zoom Out

You can zoom out the workbook by moving the slider to the left. It will change the only view of the workbook. You can have maximum of 10% zoom in. See the below screen-shot.

Spell Check in Excel

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MS Excel provides a feature of Word Processing program called Spelling check. We can get rid of the spelling mistakes with the help of spelling check feature.

Spell Check Basis

Let us see how to access the spell check.

• To access the spell checker, Choose Review ➪ Spelling or press F7.

• To check the spelling in just a particular range, select the rangebefore you activate the spell checker.

• If the spell checker finds any words it does not recognize as correct, it displays the Spelling dialogue with suggested options.

Exploring Options

Let us see the various options available in spell check dialogue.

• Ignore Once − Ignores the word and continues the spell check.

• Ignore All − Ignores the word and all subsequent occurrences of it.

• Add to Dictionary − Adds the word to the dictionary.

• Change − Changes the word to the selected word in the Suggestions list.

• Change All − Changes the word to the selected word in the Suggestions list and changes all subsequent occurrences of it without asking.

• AutoCorrect − Adds the misspelled word and its correct spelling (which you select from the list) to the AutoCorrect list.

Find & Replace in Excel

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MS Excel provides Find & Replace option for finding text within the sheet.

Find and Replace Dialogue

Let us see how to access the Find & Replace Dialogue.

To access the Find & Replace, Choose Home → Find & Select → Find or press Control + F Key. See the image below.

You can see the Find and Replace dialogue as below.

You can replace the found text with the new text in the Replace tab.

Exploring Options

Now, let us see the various options available under the Find dialogue.

• Within − Specifying the search should be in Sheet or workbook.

• Search By − Specifying the internal search method by rows or by columns.

• Look In − If you want to find text in formula as well, then select this option.

• Match Case − If you want to match the case like lower case or upper case of words, then check this option.

• Match Entire Cell Content − If you want the exact match of the word with cell, then check this option.

Copy & Paste in Excel

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MS Excel provides copy paste option in different ways. The simplest method of copy paste is as below.

Copy Paste

• To copy and paste, just select the cells you want to copy. Choose copy option after right click or press Control + C.

• Select the cell where you need to paste this copied content. Right click and select paste option or press Control + V.

In this case, MS Excel will copy everything such as values, formulas, Formats, Comments and validation. MS Excel will overwrite the content with paste. If you want to undo this, press Control + Z from the keyboard.

Copy Paste using Office Clipboard

When you copy data in MS Excel, it puts the copied content in Windows and Office Clipboard. You can view the clipboard content by Home → Clipboard. View the clipboard content. Select the cell where you need to paste. Click on paste, to paste the content.

Copy Paste in Special way

You may not want to copy everything in some cases. For example, you want to copy only Values or you want to copy only the formatting of cells. Select the paste special option as shown below.

Below are the various options available in paste special.

• All − Pastes the cell’s contents, formats, and data validation from the Windows Clipboard.

• Formulas − Pastes formulas, but not formatting.

• Values − Pastes only values not the formulas.

• Formats − Pastes only the formatting of the source range.

• Comments − Pastes the comments with the respective cells.

• Validation − Pastes validation applied in the cells.

• All using source theme − Pastes formulas, and all formatting.

• All except borders − Pastes everything except borders that appear in the source range.

• Column Width − Pastes formulas, and also duplicates the column width of the copied cells.

• Formulas & Number Formats − Pastes formulas and number formatting only.

• Values & Number Formats − Pastes the results of formulas, plus the number.

• Merge Conditional Formatting − This icon is displayed only when the copied cells contain conditional formatting. When clicked, it merges the copied conditional formatting with any conditional formatting in the destination range.

• Transpose − Changes the orientation of the copied range. Rows become columns, and columns become rows. Any formulas in the copied range are adjusted so that they work properly when transposed.